The Last Word, ch. 1-4

Chapter 1 - This properly sets the stage for the discussion at hand: Is reason (as an objective standard) possible? Nagel cogently paints a picture of the need for reason by showing the apparent contradiction of arguing against it (using reason). He is clear in his thesis and leaves us with the tension of responsibility "four our thoughts while denying that they are just expressions of our point of view."

Chapter 2 – Negel takes on the idea of subjectivism by mounting several attacks on the idea that we cannot know reason objectively. “This appears on the one hand to be a thought about how things really are, and on the other hand to deny that we are capable of such thoughts… the claim itself seems to leave us without the capacity for such arguments.” In the end, we find that both skepticism and subjectivism require an appeal to objective reason, as Negal defends. He defends a particularist, Cartesian model of reason’s objectivity.

Chapter 3 – In this chapter, Negel takes up language, particularly as presented by Wittgenstein. Using similar logic from the previous chapter, Negel seeks to establish that claiming that reason is merely a language game is self-contradicting as it is making an externalist claim within the confines of language. He seems to hang his hat on the idea that meaning, though symbolized by language, does not find its source in language.

Chapter 4 - Logic is the aim of this chapter. Negel reaches some interesting conclusions that have a significant impact on the rest of our thinking. He starts by asserting that logic is true regardless of our use or understanding of it (see Socrates’ boy from Meno). Taking up Descartes arguments more seriously, he establishes the objectivity of logic. The point he makes is that our thoughts lead us to external conclusions (in a similar way that our thoughts of finite math leads us to the concept of infinity). He concludes that objectivity is applied to all areas of knowledge; including ethics and religion. He also seems to flirt with the idea that God is responsible for our reason.